Drobne et al. used the terrestrial arthropod Porcellio scaber as a test organism for determining the cytotoxic effect of TiO₂ NPs (anatase). The animals were exposed to TiO₂ NPs of two different sizes (25 nm and 75 nm) in the concentration range 10–1000 μg TiO₂/g dry food for 3 to 14 days. No adverse effects, such as mortality, body weight changes or reduced feeding, were observed. In fact, quite the opposite, an enhanced feeding rate, food absorption efficiency and increase in catalase activity were observed. The intensity of these responses appeared to be time- but not dose-dependent. It should also be noted that the concentrations tested in this study were much higher than the predicted concentration (4.8 μg/g soil) at high emission scenario of nano-sized TiO₂. Using the same test organism another group showed that exposure to TiO₂ NPs induced destabilization of cell membrane in the epithelium of digestive glands isolated from exposed animals. They also showed that this effect can be observed after just 30 minutes of exposure.

The safety of the food additive E 171 was re-evaluated by the EFSA ANS Panel in 2016 in the frame of Regulation (EU) No 257/2010, as part of the re-evaluation programme for food additives authorised in the EU before 20 January 2009.  

The landscape for anatase titanium dioxide manufacturers is evolving rapidly, driven by technological advancements and a shift towards sustainability. As industries continue to recognize the unique properties and benefits of anatase TiO2, the demand for high-quality products is expected to grow. Manufacturers that can innovate and adapt to changing market needs while maintaining environmental responsibility will emerge as leaders in this dynamic sector. The future of anatase titanium dioxide is bright, with promising opportunities across various industries committed to harnessing its potential for a greener future.

Recent analyses of food-grade TiO₂ samples have found that a significant portion of particles may be within the nanoscale. These particles (also known as nanoparticles) range in size from 1 to 100 nm, where 1 nm equals 1 billionth of a metre (the width of a typical human hair is 80,000 to 100,000 nm).

In a 2016 study published in Scientifica (Cairo), Egyptian researchers examined the effects of titanium dioxide nanoparticles on the organs of mice by orally administering the food additive daily, for five days. The results showed that the exposure produced “mild to moderate changes in the cytoarchitecture of brain tissue in a time dependent manner.” Furthermore, “Comet assay revealed the apoptotic DNA fragmentation, while PCR-SSCP pattern and direct sequencing showed point mutation of Presenilin 1 gene at exon 5, gene linked to inherited forms of Alzheimer’s disease.” The researchers wrote: “From these findings, “the present study concluded that TiO2NPs is genotoxic and mutagenic to brain tissue which in turn might lead to Alzheimer’s disease incidence.”